Feedlot

From the fields and feedlots, food is transported to facilities, where more fossil fuel, more than water, more chemicals, and electricity are used to process and package the food.

From: Environmental Nutrition , 2019

Overview of cattle production systems

Marcia I. Endres , Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein , in Advances in Cattle Welfare, 2018

1.3.3 Feedlot product system

The feedlot sector represents an intensive production organisation with the goal of growing and or fattening cattle until they reach slaughter weight. The feedlot sector tin can be further divided into growing (backgrounding) and finishing (fattening) phases. In North America the backgrounding stage (typically the offset 90 days after arrival for feedlot calves) focuses on feeding high-forage/low-grain rations with the goal of maximizing growth and minimizing fat deposition. Welfare problems in the backgrounding phase can include injuries during handling associated with revaccination and implant protocols, too as increased morbidity due to the stressors related to transition from the ranch to the feedlot indicated earlier. The finishing stage (typically the last 100 days later on backgrounding) focuses on feeding loftier-grain/low-provender rations to backgrounded calves or yearlings until they achieve a prescribed end (fat encompass) before marketing for slaughter. Welfare bug in the fattening phase are predominantly related to the feeding and include free gas bloat, acidosis, liver abscesses, and laminitis, all of which are associated with high concentrate feeding typical in North America and Europe. Some feedlots focus solely on either backgrounding or finishing, however, it is not uncommon to take i feedlot feed calves from growth to finish. Some ranches have their ain feedlot facilities where cattle are bred and finished for slaughter by the aforementioned producer, just this is less mutual. Although pasture finishing is the most predominant organisation in Brazil, a growing percentage of cattle are being finished in feedlots (approximately the last 70 days earlier slaughter) where they are fed a nutrition with higher fodder content than North American cattle ( Millen et al., 2009).

Both the background and finishing (fattening) phases of the feedlot sector use the same housing and facilities. The phases are defined more than by the type of cattle and how they are fed rather than the way they are housed. Consequently, the post-obit clarification volition cover the ecology/housing conditions of both and will exist referred to as 'feedlot product' in this department.

Feedlot production represents an intensive confinement system that has loftier input costs (compared with suckler dogie and stocker production) associated with extensive infrastructure, feeding, medical, and labor costs. There are two types of feedlots, outdoor and indoor. The outdoor feedlot is suited for drier climates (Fig. ane.25). In addition to brute comfort, indoor facilities also part to keep feed and bedding dry. It is for these reasons that in wetter climates cattle are housed indoors or in partially enclosed shelters or barns. The main difference between indoor and outdoor lots is that indoor feedlots are much smaller and hold fewer cattle per pen merely at college stocking density. They ordinarily have slatted floors so the manure tin can to fall through to a holding pit (Fig. 1.26A). The indoor facility, as is implied, has a roof and side walls (solid or curtains) that tin can be opened when weather is moderate (Fig. ane.26B). With the exception of these features, indoor and outdoor facilities are very similar.

Effigy 1.25. Outdoor feedlot facility.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

Effigy 1.26. (A) Fully enclosed (indoor) feedlot facility with slatted floors and (B) semi open feedlot facility.

 Source: (A) Photograph courtesy of Dr Derek Haley. (B) Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

In temperate climates both indoor and outdoor feedlots typically take barns for treatment and processing cattle (known as processing barns). The barns contain pens and handling equipment such as holding pens (Fig. one.27), a crowd tub and curved or straight chute (Fig. i.28) that leads to a squeeze chute (Fig. 1.29) where the cattle can exist restrained to receive vaccinations or other medical treatments. The barn tin be completely or partially closed which is more for the comfort of the feedlot staff than the animals. In tropical climates, barns are not as common and unremarkably only consist of the handling components of the facility such every bit the crowd pen, chutes, and clasp chutes. European feedlots accept minimal handling equipment or infrastructure such as central treatment alleys which makes handling a welfare issue for both the cattle and the stock attendants.

Figure 1.27. Instance of a key handling alley with holding pens.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

Figure 1.28. An example of a crowd tub and curved chute within a processing barn.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

Figure 1.29. A clasp chute used to restrain cattle for the delivery of vaccinations or medical treatments.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

A typical outdoor feedlot has perimeter equally well equally internal fencing. In temperate climates, porosity fencing is synthetic to reduce the effects of wind chill (Fig. 1.30). Heat stress can be more severe in feedlot environments where cattle may have little admission to shade, are in close proximity to other cattle and accept high oestrus loads associated with rumen fermentation. It is for these reasons that heat stress abatement strategies are used in hotter regions and include sprinklers or shade structures inside the pens. For case, every year hundreds of cattle dice during heat waves in the USA where daily and evening temperatures are like and cattle have no manner of dissipating their oestrus load.

Figure one.xxx. Outdoor feedlot with perimeter and porosity fencing.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

All feedlots have feed troughs/bunks lined along one side of the pen where feed can be delivered usually past trucks or tractors (Fig. 1.31). Bunks keep feed from existence scattered and minimize contamination from manure and mud. Feed bunks tin exist fabricated of wood, metal or concrete and often have a concrete frock in front end of them so that cattle can stand up on a level surface while feeding (Fig. 1.31). Each pen contains a h2o trough that is normally automatic and a raised dirt mound or sloped surface area where straw or wood chip bedding tin be spread. The mound or sloped area supplies an area where cattle tin can lie down peculiarly when the pens get excessively dirty during rainy or snow thaw periods (Fig. 1.32). Depending on the size of the pen, cattle are housed in groups ranging in size from l to 350 head. Pens are graded to a slope that allows drainage. In both indoor and outdoor systems welfare may be compromised as a result of muddy pen conditions. In comparison to pasture conditions in that location is an increased incidence of lameness and injury because mud creates slippery atmospheric condition and facilitates spread of infectious hook-related illness such as foot rot or digital dermatitis (Stokka et al., 2001). In that location is express research on beef cattle lameness in feedlots with physical or slatted floors. Withal, claw health appears better for beef cattle kept in straw yards or deep litter rather than on slatted floors (Tessitore et al., 2009). Mud also makes locomotion more difficult and results in greater energy expenditure and can as well affect estrus loss. There is likewise evidence that cattle lying beliefs may be affected by mud. Overall movement may be more limited within a feedlot pen versus on pasture every bit a event of higher stocking density and available space per animal too equally the effects of excessive mud which is known to limit ambulation inside the pen.

Effigy ane.31. Feed bunks with concrete frock in an outdoor feedlot.

 Source: Photo courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

Effigy 1.32. Dirt mounds or slopped areas are used to provide drier areas in outdoor feedlots.

 Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

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ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF Alternative BEEF Production SYSTEMS IN COLORADO

Gerald 1000. Ward , ... Terence P. Yorks , in Agronomics and Energy, 1977

Feedlot model

Feedlots are totally dependent upon harvested feed ingredients from the crop production model. Three rations were considered. The daily feed ingredients in the rations on a dry out-affair footing for a typical 825 lb average weight of beef beast are given in Table iv. The expected average daily gains are three.0 lb/day for rations 1 and two, and just 2.1 lb/twenty-four hour period for ration 3.

Tabular array 4. Rations for Feedlot Cattle. (Lb/head/day, for beef cattle of 825 lb average weight.)

Ingredient Ration 1 Ration 2 Ration 3
Corn grain 18.0 – –
Flaked corn – 16.0 –
Beet lurid pellets – two.0 –
Soybean meal i.0 1.0 1.0
Corn silage (dry out wt) ii.4 ane.viii 12.0
Alfalfa hay – – 2.0

Iii basic weight intervals for beef product were considered in the model. Calves produced past the rangeland models counterbalance 440 lb. The backgrounding phase feeds the cattle until a 715 lb weight. The last finishing stage raises the weight to 1100 lb. The higher up daily rations are converted into total rations needed to raise the weight from 440 to 715 lb and from 715 to 1100 lb. National Research Quango guidelines [25] are used in the conversion. Feed processing varies with the ration then that separate activities are available for grinding and flaking operations.

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Nutrition, feeding and direction of beef cattle in intensive and extensive production systems

Tim A. McAllister , ... Gabriel Ribeiro , in Animal Agronomics, 2020

Finishing

Finishing feedlots are larger than backgrounding feedlots and normally house >10,000 head of cattle, with 150–200 animals per pen ( Fig. five.1). Unlike backgrounding diets, finishing feedlot diets contain high amounts of concentrate feeds (>seventy%) and are designed to increase both subcutaneous and intramuscular (marbling) fat. To avoid digestive disturbances, like ruminal acidosis and bloat, calves must be carefully transitioned from forage-based to concentrate-based diets during finishing. This procedure usually requires a series of two–iv diets, where the corporeality of concentrate feeds is gradually increased over a menstruation of 2–4   weeks. Reducing the duration of adaptation to less than ii weeks can impair the growth performance of cattle. 26 This transition period is the time when cattle are at greatest take a chance of developing acidosis or bloat. When cattle first arrive at finishing feedlots they are typically provided with access to a total mixed ration (TMR) receiving diet, consisting primarily of forage and a smaller proportion of concentrate. Initially, the feed intake of newly arrived cattle can be very low and some cattle may not consume feed. 27 The introduction of the final high-concentrate diet is typically withheld until all cattle accept settled into confinement and showroom consistent and stable feed intake.

Abrupt nutrition change from fodder to grain has been reported by many researchers to result in ruminal acidosis. 7 Even when dietary concentrate is increased using a step-upward approach, increases in concentrate may cause acidosis. On the first twenty-four hours of each transition, depression ruminal pH values are common and Klopfenstein et al. 28 concluded that during adaptation, it is likely that all cattle experience at least some mild level of acidosis. In dissimilarity, Bevans et al. 29 achieved this same objective using a single nutrition and encountered only a few cases of clinical acidosis. Others have proposed that subclinical acidosis is mainly caused past the high ruminal concentrations of volatile fatty acids arising from the fermentation of starch. 30 Low ruminal pH also reduces the diverseness of both bacteria and protozoa within the rumen microbiome, 31,32 an outcome that is as well associated with a reduction in cobweb digestibility. 33 A shorter adaptation menstruation to grain-based diets tends to be associated with greater variability in pH among individuals as opposed to an absolute pH reject. 29 Under these conditions a small proportion of the herd, typically < ii% may develop clinical acidosis. The take chances of clinical acidosis and the occurrence of subclinical acidosis tin exist reduced by increasing the proportion or lowering the quality of the fodder in the diet. 34 This serves to reduce the rate of ruminal volatile fatty acid production and stimulates rumination and the production of saliva, which contains sodium bicarbonate that buffers ruminal pH. Skillful feeding management tin can minimize both the occurrence and severity of acidosis, but every bit long as feedlot cattle are finished on high-grain diets, acidosis volition pose a wellness gamble. A detailed understanding of clinical acidosis has been hampered past its low charge per unit of occurrence and the multitude of factors that contribute to the affliction (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2. Possible factors and interrelationships affecting acidosis in feedlot cattle. Solid arrows indicate relationships known to exist with a loftier degree of conviction, whereas dotted arrows represent putative relationships.

 Adapted from Galyean ML, Eng KS. Application of research findings and summary of inquiry needs - bud britton memorial symposium on metabolic disorders of feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci. 1998;76:323–327.

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Feedlot Vaccination Protocols

Janey 50. Gordon , Daniel U. Thomson , in Food Beast Exercise (Fifth Edition), 2009

CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES

Clostridial disease in feedlots may exist rare because of the extensive use of clostridial vaccines in cattle before entering the feedlot. However, clostridial diseases that tin can found in the feedlot include malignant edema (Clostridium septicum), blackleg (Clostridium chauvoei), black disease (Clostridium novyi type B), redwater disease (C. novyi type D), enterotoxemia (C. perfringens type D), bacillary hemoglobinuria (Clostridium hemolyticum), and tetanus (Clostridium tetani). 50,51 Some clostridial vaccinations accept been associated with injection-site lesions, then concerns have developed for prudent use of these vaccines. Despite the potential for injection-site lesions, the 1994 National Animal Health Monitoring Organization report indicated that 34.4% of feedlots with fewer than 1000 caput used clostridial vaccines, whereas 91% of larger feedlots vaccinated against one or more clostridial agents. To respond to the topic on injection-site lesions with clostridial vaccines, the National Cattlemen's Beefiness Association'southward Beef Quality Assurance task strength released recommendations, which include the use of subcutaneous injections whenever possible. Furthermore, after the primary immunization with clostridial bacterins, repeat or multiple injections should exist discontinued, peculiarly late in the feeding period.

A common consensus among feedlot veterinarians is to administer a clostridial vaccine to calves on inflow. All the same, it is probably not advantageous to administer more than 1 clostridial vaccine after inflow to the feedlot. Several studies have shown detrimental effects on feedlot performance later a booster of clostridial vaccine. 1 such report reported a 20% decrease in feed consumption in response to a second vaccination with a multivalent vaccine. 52 Additionally, some other study indicated there was no result on the incidence of sudden decease syndrome after a 2d vaccination. nineteen

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Biotechnological Approaches to Amend Sustainable Milk and Meat Yield in Bovines

Cristina Castillo , ... Joaquín Hernández , in Reference Module in Food Science, 2017

Due north-Derivatives Control

Reactive nitrogen from feed yards could negatively influence the air and h2o quality in the event of volatilization of ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (Northward2O), and leaching and runoff of nitrate (NOiii −), or other forms of organic and inorganic N. The review performed by Waldrip et al. (2015a) offers current evaluation methods to mitigate losses of Due north from feed yards, identifying the gaps that require further inquiry. According to this information, there are central factors to study: feed thousand manure management and cattle diet.

•

Nitrogen-balance studies showed that just near 15% of the Due north flow through a feed k remains in beast tissue (average of 25   g animal day-1), and that almost of the N (44%) was lost to the atmosphere or as runoff, whereas only 41% was removed with harvested manure.

•

Dietary concentration of proteins and its ruminal deposition were the primary factors affecting the quantity and route of excretion (urine vs. feces) of N past beefiness cattle.

In relation to ammonia (NH3) other review of Waldrip et al. (2015b) reports the state of the science concerning feed yard NH3 and evaluate methods to mitigate their losses. Briefly, the review shows the following:

•

Up to xc% of feed m NH3 originates from urine deposited in animal pens, but the magnitude of this loss depends on both conditions and management practices

•

Feed yard NHthree emissions are higher in summer than wintertime, largely considering of increased temperature

•

Both urea excretion and subsequent NHiii emission increased with dietary protein concentration

The authors depict that managing cattle diets to meet, but non exceed, metabolic protein requirements is the most practical way to reduce N losses; however, diets must exist inverse carefully to avert unintended negative consequences on animal product. Other possible mitigation approaches are (1) dietary manipulation to decrease Due north excretion, (ii) inhibition of urea hydrolysis, and (3) capture of ionic ammonium in manure with pen-surface amendments (e.g., urease inhibitors, alum, and zeolites).

To end this section, information technology is clear that manure management systems that prevent pollution and minimize avoiding CH4 emissions are becoming increasingly bonny. Anaerobic digestion results in the production of biogas that can be used equally a renewable source of electricity on-farm or sold to the distribution grid. Anaerobic digestion tin can also reduce GHG emissions, odors, and water contagion. Digested manure solids tin can be recycled on-farm as bedding material, thus decreasing operational expenses (Arikan et al., 2015).

On the other manus, nanotechnology-enabled catalysts volition play a disquisitional role in efficient and cost effective bioconversion and fuel cell for electricity production besides as enabling efficient energy storage, which will greatly facilitate and do good the development of distributed energy supplies, especially in rural communities where infrastructure is lacking. Such an approach may result in the elimination of the need for system-wide electricity grids, hence accelerating rural development and improving productivity, concern and living environment, and volition exist particularly beneficial to developing countries (Thornton, 2010; Chen and Yada, 2011).

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PRESLAUGHTER Handling | Pattern of Stockyards, Lairages, Corrals, Races, Chutes, and Loading Ramps

T. Grandin , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Layout of Stockyards

The best stockyards accept one-way traffic through the yards. Animals enter through one alley and leave to get to the stunner through an alley that is at the other end of the pen. Pens tin be laid out either straight or on an angle (herringbone). Angled pens work well only they must be laid out correctly. The correct angle for all species is pens on a lx–80° angle (Figure 3). Never use a 45° bending. Animals might get stuck in the corners. To farther eliminate corners, gates can be built that are longer than the width of the alley so that they open up on an angle. The recommended alley and gate lengths are:

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Cattle – 10   ft (iii   thou) alley with 12   ft (3.5   m) gates

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Pigs and sheep – 8   ft (2.5   chiliad) alley with x   ft (3   m) gates

Some plants apply narrower alleys for pigs. When narrow alleys are used, pigs should be moved in much smaller groups of 10 or less.

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Growth curves and growth patterns

Steven K. Lonergan , ... Dennis North. Marple , in The Science of Fauna Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019

Feedlot Management Concepts for the Product and Marketing Plan

As cattle in the feedlot approach harvest fourth dimension, real-time ultrasound measurements can be used to help the feedlot direction make good marketing decisions. The 3 criteria used in the report to establish the genetic base of operations for option of quality cattle for the feedlots should be used in the determination process on when to send the feedlot cattle to the packer for the harvest process. The three criteria are as follows:

i.

Live weight: When cattle reach a weight on the growth curve where average daily gains showtime to dull, it is a good time to use the real-time ultrasound scans to estimate the carcass traits. This is ordinarily 30 days or about 100 pounds before expected harvest. The live weight of the cattle should be obtained at this time. When the alive weight is obtained, the carcass weight of the cattle can be estimated by multiplying the alive weight by the estimated dressing percentage (61.v%–63.5%). Marketing cattle at an acceptable weight range is of import for obtaining a good market place price. Acceptable carcass weights usually range from 600 to 950 pounds. Individual packing companies may deviate slightly from this range.

2.

Subcutaneous fat encompass: When the live weights of the cattle are obtained, real-fourth dimension ultrasound measurements for the subcutaneous fatty cover should be obtained at the 12th–13th rib surface area. The fatty thickness is a major gene for the determination of the USDA Yield grade. The relationships are presented in Table 6.ii. This information can exist used past the feedlot management on when to marketplace the cattle to obtain a practiced market price and not overfeed the cattle. Feeding cattle to a weight where backlog waste product fat is deposited not only reduces the market place value merely besides reduces the feed efficiency of the cattle in the feedlot.

Table 6.ii. Relationship betwixt fat thickness at the 12th rib and USDA preliminary yield course for cattle

Fat cover (in.) Preliminary Yield grade
0.2 two.5
0.iv 3.0
0.vi three.5
0.8 4.0
iii.

Percent intramuscular fat: The intramuscular fat percent should as well be determined by real-time ultrasound when the cattle are weighed. The intramuscular fatty percentage is determined at the twelfth–13th rib of the live cattle. Intramuscular fat pct in the live creature tin can be related to the caste of marbling in the carcass as cattle grow in the feedlot. An instance is shown in Fig. 6.31, Example A. Feedlot management can use this information as a guide on how long to feed cattle to obtain the most assisting return on investments based on the original feeder cattle prices also as feed costs.

Marbling score is the principal determinant for the quality (Prime number, Choice, Select) grades of beef carcasses, and a major price deviation often exists between Select and Choice grades in nearly markets. Therefore the feedlot managers will balance the value effect of weight, subcutaneous fat thickness (Yield class Value), and intramuscular fat percentage (Quality grade Value) with feed efficiency of the cattle when decisions are made to market the cattle for harvest to the packer.

The feedlot managers have several options to consider when they market cattle. Marketing cattle on a alive weight basis is the old method that has been in identify for years. The purchase price (bid) for the cattle may exist from a packer buyer or from a price determined at the sale barn. The price is for the alive weight and is unremarkably expressed every bit the dollars per hundred weight. For this option, carcass information is not unremarkably reported back to the owner of the cattle.

Another pick for the feedlot managers is to sell the cattle for the value of the hot carcass weight. This is often called selling in the beefiness by the industry. It is used when dressing per centum is hard to evaluate, such as dingy atmospheric condition of the hide of cattle. Usually this option includes the value based on a truckload of cattle. In this organisation, the producer or feedlot possessor is responsible for the trim loss of the carcass that occurs before the hot carcass weight is obtained. In this marketing option, the packer tin can obtain the carcass traits such as carcass grade, marbling, and subcutaneous fat and render the information to the feedlot management or possessor of the cattle.

A third marketing option is the Grid method. When cattle are sold on the grid option, the packer provides a price for each carcass and provides the 12th–13th rib fat thickness, rib-eye area, and degree of marbling. The carcass Yield grades and Quality grades are also provided.

An example of a Grid Marketing Program that promotes higher carcass prices for cattle that have a Quality grade of Choice and a Yield form of 1 or 2 volition be described later. Only a limited number of cattle have these traits. Therefore a Grid Marketing Program for Choice Quality grades and Yield grades of one or 2 can be used by the manufacture for option programs to improve the genetic base and strengthen the marketing programs for cattle with a low amount of subcutaneous fatty and a high amount of marbling. An example for cattle with these traits is shown in Fig. 6.31 (Example B) when they enter the feedlot until harvest. It is important to market place these cattle when they grade Option and before they eolith more than than 0.iii   in. of fat at the twelfth and 13th rib.

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Investigating Feedlot Respiratory Illness Outbreaks

Larry C. Hollis , in Food Fauna Practice (Fifth Edition), 2009

GATHER THE PERTINENT HISTORY

The initial contact by feedlot personnel will describe the reason for their concern. As information near the cattle and situation is put together, a mental picture will begin to develop. Questions should move from general to specific. The normal starting bespeak is a series of general questions, usually starting with asking about the region of the country where the cattle originated. The experienced feedlot veterinarian knows that a semiload of cattle purchased through an society buyer in a particular country may be fabricated up of cattle originating from upwards to xl different farms located in 10 different states. The "origin" just happens to be the home base for the social club heir-apparent who assembled the load. Gathering this type of history helps the veterinarian determine that the cattle may take come up from an expanse where cattle are commonly mismanaged or undermanaged, a mineral-deficient area, an area where tall fescue oft creates a toxicity problem, or where internal or external parasitism may exist a major contributing gene.

Specific history of the cattle should exist obtained. What is the age, sex, quality, and origin of the cattle? How were the cattle purchased or supplied to the feedlot—ranch/farm of origin, video auction, local auction barn, stocker or backgrounding functioning, lodge buyer? If cattle were from multiple origins, how long did it take to put the load together? From which states were cattle assembled? Were cattle fresh at the time of purchase? Were cattle preconditioned? What products, procedures, and timing were included in any preconditioning programme? Was annihilation requested to exist washed to cattle at an guild buyer facility (due east.m., castrated, dehorned, vaccinated, mass medicated, individuals treated for illness)? Were whatever things done that were not requested or anticipated earlier shipment? Were the trucks clean before the cattle were loaded? When did the trucks load up and leave for the feedlot? What was the distance between the origin and the feedlot? How long were the trucks en road? Did the trucks encounter whatever delays? Answers to these questions assistance develop the mental picture farther and provide additional insight into the overall state of affairs.

Inflow history at the feedlot should then be obtained. What time of day/night did the trucks arrive? Did a qualified person picket the cattle unload from the trucks? Did the cattle match the description of the order from a health condition and freshness appearance, as well as number, sex, quality, etc.? Were there dead cattle on the truck or cattle that were obviously ill equally they unloaded from the truck? What did the cattle practise when they were placed in the receiving pen—explore the pen, search for feed and h2o, or lay downward and rest? Did the cattle appear dehydrated? Were the cattle bawling? How much did the cattle compress from payweight at the point of origin to the inweight at the feedlot? Were answers based on memory, or were these items routinely recorded for each set of cattle received at the feedlot? Again, answers to these questions provide boosted insight.

Processing history should be obtained next. How long were the cattle rested between inflow at the feedlot and processing? Were backtags removed to encounter if the amount of hair retained on the backtag matched the amount of pilus missing from the spot where the backtag was removed? Which vaccines were administered and what procedures were conducted during processing? How were the vaccines handled from the time of purchase until the actual fourth dimension of assistants to the animals? Were observations made for ill cattle earlier and during processing? Were temperatures taken every bit animals were being processed? Were any delays encountered during processing? Were cattle mass medicated and, if so, with what product and dose? Has the processing crew experienced issues in the by? Were new personnel working on the processing crew the twenty-four hour period the trouble cattle were processed? Were serial numbers recorded for products administered, as well as the name of the individual administering each production? Were answers based on retentivity, or were these items routinely recorded for each prepare of cattle processed at the feedlot? All of these answers lead to more than insight.

Transitioning to feed history should exist obtained. What is the general history of this feedlot's ability to mix rations properly and evangelize the right ration to the correct pen of cattle on a timely basis? Were there whatever issues getting the cattle started on feed? How does this feedlot transition cattle from starting ration to finishing ration? Which ration step were the cattle on when the respiratory outbreak started? If the problem occurred later in the feeding period, were there whatever problems getting the cattle to step up through the intermediate rations to the top ration? Were there whatever feed-related problems at whatsoever time before the time the respiratory outbreak occurred?

Time and location history should be obtained. Is there but a single pen or several groups of cattle affected? Is it a generalized problem or localized to a specific area within the feedlot? Is there a pattern in the age, sex, or inflow fourth dimension of affected cattle? Is the affected department of the feedlot served by a specific treatment facility? Did the problem arise following a weekend, holiday, or major social result when feedlot employees might accept been preoccupied? Are there new pen riders or new members of the handling crew? How well do they know their jobs? Has the veterinarian observed them doing their jobs?

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General Systemic States

In Veterinarian Medicine (Eleventh Edition), 2017

Control

Shade alone is the most important cistron in maintaining the comfort of livestock and preventing rut stress. Shade reduces the heat gain from solar radiation and tin be provided by trees or artificially by roofs or shades fabricated from cloth or bogus material. Shades should be placed over feed and where the producer wants the animals to spend their time. The efficiency of metallic shades can be increased by painting metal shades white on the topside and blackness on the underside. A north–s orientation will permit drying nether the shades equally the shaded surface area moves throughout the solar day; this may be helpful in decreasing the incidence of coliform mastitis if sprinklers are used nether the shades and cattle prefer to prevarication nether the shades than in freestalls.

In dairy and feedlot cattle, the post-obit measures should exist taken to manage heat stress:

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Provide cool clean water and enough of trough infinite for drinking.

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Utilize shades and intermittent sprinkler systems (wet time of 1–2 min with an adequate dry off time of 20–thirty min); continuous awarding of water increases the local humidity and decreases the effectiveness of evaporative cooling.

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Enhance airflow by fans or past providing mounds for cattle to stand up on.

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Adapt rations and feed a larger percentage of the ration in the evening when it is libation.

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Minimize handling during periods of greatest heat stress.

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Select cattle based on breed and glaze characteristics, and firm the most susceptible cattle (heavy, black) on eastward-sloping lots with the most shade; genetic studies accept identified genes associated with resistance to heat stress in dairy cattle. 1,6

In exercising horses, periodic rests in the shade with fans and water sprinklers and maintaining a normal hydration condition can be very helpful in preventing heat stress. Monitoring the heart rate is a useful and practical method of assessing the degree of heat stress in horses, because heart rates remain elevated for a longer flow of time in horses undergoing heat stress.

If animals have to be confined under conditions of high temperatures and humidity, the use of tranquilizing drugs has been recommended to reduce unnecessary activity. Even so, intendance is needed considering blood force per unit area falls and the animals may accept difficulty losing oestrus if the environment is very hot and in some cases may gain heat. Chlorpromazine, for example, has been shown to increase significantly the survival rate of pigs exposed to heat and humidity stress.

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Diseases of the Liver

In Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), 2017

Treatment

F. necrophorum is susceptible in vitro to β-lactam antibiotics, tetracyclines, macrolides, and lincomycins but is resistant to aminoglycosides and ionophore antibiotics. 2 The apparent sensitivity of this gram-negative pathogen to penicillin and cephalosporins is peculiar even based on its cell wall structure. two

Liver abscess in feedlot cattle is not clinical and not routinely treated as a clinical disease. In clinical disease associated with liver abscess, prolonged handling with high doses of antimicrobials is required if therapeutic concentrations are to exist accomplished at the site of infection. Relapse is mutual considering of incomplete command of the localized infection.

Treatment and Control

Treatment

Procaine penicillin M (44,000 IU/kg IM every 24 h long term) (R-2)

Oxytetracycline (10 mg/kg IM every 24 h or long-interim formulation 20 mg/kg every 72 h long term) (R-2)

Ampicillin trihydrate (10 mg/kg SC or IM every 24 h long term) (R-2)

Control

Tylosin (90 mg/animal PO every 24 h long term) (R-1)

Chlortetracycline (70 mg/brute PO every 24 h long term) (R-one)

Oxytetracycline (75 mg/brute PO every 24 h long term) (R-1)

Virginiamycin (sixteen.5–19.8 mg/kg PO every 24 h long term) (R-i)

Vaccination

Vaccination with Fusobacterium necrophorum leukotoxoid/Trueperella pyogenes bacterin vaccines. (R-1)

IM, intramuscularly; PO, orally; SC, subcutaneously.

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URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702052460000097